Figure TS.5 (a) — Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

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SPM

Chapter T

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter CB9

Glossary

Summary for Policymakers

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IIntroduction
AObserved changes and impacts
BProjected changes and risks
CImplementing responses to ocean and cryosphere change
+Citation

Technical Summary

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TS.0Introduction
TS.1 Framing and Context of the Report
TS.2High Mountain Areas
TS.3Polar Regions
TS.4Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities
TS.5Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities
TS.6Extremes, Abrupt Changes and Managing Risks
TS.7Low-lying Islands and Coasts (Integrative Cross-Chapter Box)
CCitation

Framing and Context of the Report

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ESExecutive Summary
1.1Why this Special Report?
1.2 Role of the Ocean and Cryosphere in the Earth System
- 1.2.1Ocean and Cryosphere in Earth’s Energy, Water and Biogeochemical Cycles
- 1.2.2Interactions Between the Ocean and Cryosphere
1.3 Time Scales, Thresholds and Detection of Ocean and Cryosphere Change
1.4 Changes in the Ocean and Cryosphere
- 1.4.1Observed and Projected Changes in the Ocean
- 1.4.2Observed and Projected Changes in the Cryosphere
1.5 Risk and Impacts Related to Ocean and Cryosphere Change
1.6Addressing the Causes and Consequences of Climate Change for the Ocean and Cryosphere
- 1.6.1 Mitigation and Adaptation Options in the Ocean and Cryosphere
- 1.6.2Adaptation in Natural Systems, Ecosystems, and Human Systems
1.7 Governance and Institutions
1.8 Knowledge Systems for Understanding and Responding to Change
- 1.8.1Scientific Knowledge
  - 1.8.1.1 Ocean and Cryosphere Observations
  - 1.8.1.2Reanalysis Products
  - 1.8.1.3Model Simulation Data
  - 1.8.1.4 Palaeoclimate Data
- 1.8.2Indigenous Knowledge and Local Knowledge
- 1.8.3The Role of Knowledge in People’s Responses to Climate, Ocean and Cryosphere Change
1.9Approaches Taken in this Special Report
- 1.9.1Methodologies Relevant to this Report
- 1.9.2Communication of Confidence in Assessment Findings
1.10Integrated Storyline of this Special Report
AAcknowledgements
CCitation
SMSupplementary Material

High Mountain Areas

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ESExecutive Summary
2.1Introduction
2.2Changes in the Mountain Cryosphere
- 2.2.1Atmospheric Drivers of Changes in the Mountain Cryosphere
  - 2.2.1.1Surface Air Temperature
  - 2.2.1.2Rainfall and Snowfall
  - 2.2.1.3 Other Meteorological Variables
- 2.2.2Snow Cover
- 2.2.3Glaciers
- 2.2.4Permafrost
- 2.2.5Lake and River Ice
2.3 Mountain Social-Ecological Systems: Impacts, Risks and Human Responses
- 2.3.1Water Resources
  - 2.3.1.1Changes in River Runoff
  - 2.3.1.2 Water Quality
  - 2.3.1.3 Key Impacts and Vulnerability
  - 2.3.1.4 Water Governance and Response Measures
- 2.3.2Landslide, Avalanche and Flood Hazards
  - 2.3.2.1 Observed and Projected Changes
  - 2.3.2.2 Exposure, Vulnerability and Impacts
  - 2.3.2.3 Disaster Risk Reduction and Adaptation
- 2.3.3Ecosystems
  - 2.3.3.1 Terrestrial Biota
  - 2.3.3.2 Freshwater Biota
  - 2.3.3.3 Ecosystem Services and Adaptation
- 2.3.4Infrastructure and Mining
- 2.3.5Tourism and Recreation
- 2.3.6Cultural Values and Human Well-being
- 2.3.7Migration, Habitability and Livelihoods
2.4 International Policy Frameworks and Pathways to Sustainable Development
2.5 Key Gaps in Knowledge and Prospects
AAcknowledgements
A.2.A Additional Information on Global and Regional Glacier Mass Change Estimates for 2006–2015
CCitation
+Acknowledgements
SMSupplementary Material

Polar regions

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ESExecutive Summary
3.1Introduction: Polar Regions, People and the Planet
3.2 Sea Ice and Polar Oceans: Changes, Consequences and Impacts
- 3.2.1Observed Changes in Sea Ice and Ocean
- 3.2.2Projected Changes in Sea Ice and Ocean
  - 3.2.2.1Sea Ice
  - 3.2.2.2Physical Oceanography
  - 3.2.2.3Carbon and Ocean Acidification
- 3.2.3Impacts on Marine Ecosystems
  - 3.2.3.1Arctic
  - 3.2.3.23.2.3.2 Southern Ocean
- 3.2.4Impacts on Social-Ecological Systems
  - 3.2.4.1Fisheries
  - 3.2.4.2Tourism
  - 3.2.4.3Transportation
3.3Polar Ice Sheets and Glaciers: Changes, Consequences and Impacts
- 3.3.1Ice Sheet Changes
  - 3.3.1.1Antarctic Ice Sheet Mass Change
  - 3.3.1.2Components of Antarctic Ice Sheet Mass Change
  - 3.3.1.3Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Change
  - 3.3.1.4Components of Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Change
  - 3.3.1.5Drivers of ice sheet mass change
  - 3.3.1.6Natural and Anthropogenic Forcing
  - 3.3.1.7Ice sheet projections
- 3.3.2Polar Glacier Changes
  - 3.3.2.1Observations, Components of Change, and Drivers
  - 3.3.2.2Projections
- 3.3.3Consequences and Impacts
  - 3.3.3.1Sea Level
  - 3.3.3.2Physical Oceanography
  - 3.3.3.3Biogeochemistry
  - 3.3.3.4Ecosystems
3.4Arctic Snow, Freshwater Ice and Permafrost: Changes, Consequences and Impacts
- 3.4.1Observations
  - 3.4.1.1 Seasonal Snow Cover
  - 3.4.1.2 Permafrost
  - 3.4.1.3 Freshwater Systems
- 3.4.2Projections
  - 3.4.2.1 Seasonal Snow
  - 3.4.2.2Permafrost
  - 3.4.2.3Freshwater Systems
- 3.4.3 Consequences and Impacts
  - 3.4.3.1 Global Climate Feedbacks
  - 3.4.3.2 Ecosystems and their Services
  - 3.4.3.3Impacts on Social-Ecological Systems
3.5Human Responses to Climate Change in Polar Regions
3.6 Synopsis
3.7 Key Knowledge Gaps and Uncertainties
+Acknowledgements
CCitation
SMSupplementary Material