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Figure 3.17a
(a)Newly prepared micro water harvesting catchment, using the Vallerani system.
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Foreword
Preface
Headline Statements
Technical Summary
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Annexes
Resources
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Summary for Policymakers
SPM
Chapter TS
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter A-I
Chapter A-II
Chapter A-III
Chapter A-IV
Chapter A-V
Summary for Policymakers
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1
Introduction
A
People, land and climate in a warming world
B
Adaptation and mitigation response options
C
Enabling response options
D
Action in the near-term
+
Acknowledgements
+
Citation
+
SPM in UN Languages
Technical Summary
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Framing and Context
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ES
Executive Summary
1.1
Introduction and scope of the report
1.1.1
Objectives and scope of the assessment
1.1.2
Status and dynamics of the (global) land system
1.1.2.1
1.1.2.1 Land ecosystems and climate change
1.1.2.2
Current patterns of land use and land cover
1.1.2.3
Past and ongoing trends
1.2
Key challenges related to land use change
1.2.1
Land system change, land degradation, desertification and food security
1.2.2
Progress in dealing with uncertainties in assessing land processes in the climate system
1.2.2.1
Concepts related to risk, uncertainty and confidence
1.2.2.2
Nature and scope of uncertainties related to land use
1.2.2.3
Uncertainties in decision-making
1.3
Response options to the key challenges
1.3.1
Targeted decarbonisation relying on large land-area need
1.3.2
Land management
1.3.2.1
Agricultural, forest and soil management
1.3.3
Value chain management
1.3.3.1
Supply management
1.3.3.2
Demand management
1.3.4
Risk management
1.3.5
Economics of land-based mitigation pathways: Costs versus benefits of early action under uncertainty
1.3.6
Adaptation measures and scope for co-benefits with mitigation
1.4
Enabling the response
1.4.1
Governance to enable the response
1.4.2
Gender agency as a critical factor in climate and land sustainability outcomes
1.4.3
Policy instruments
1.4.3.1
Legal and regulatory instruments
1.4.3.2
Economic and financial instruments
1.4.3.3
Rights-based instruments and customary norms
1.4.3.4
Social and cultural norms
1.5
The interdisciplinary nature of the SRCCL
Land–Climate interactions
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Executive Summary
2.1
Introduction: Land–climate interactions
2.1.1
Recap of previous IPCC and other relevant reports as baselines
2.1.2
Introduction to the chapter structure
2.2
The effect of climate variability and change on land
2.2.1
Overview of climate impacts on land
2.2.1.1
Climate drivers of land form and function
2.2.1.2
Changes in global land surface air temperature
2.2.2
Climate-driven changes in aridity
2.2.3
The influence of climate change on food security
2.2.4
Climate-driven changes in terrestrial ecosystems
2.2.5
Climate extremes and their impact on land functioning
2.2.5.1
Changes in extreme temperatures, heatwaves and drought
2.2.5.2
Impacts of heat extremes and drought on land
2.2.5.3
Changes in heavy precipitation
2.2.5.4
Impacts of precipitation extremes on different land cover types
2.3
Greenhouse gas fluxes between land and atmosphere
2.3.1
Carbon dioxide
2.3.1.1 The total net flux of CO2 between land and atmosphere
2.3.1.2 Separation of the total net land flux into AFOLU fluxes and the land sink
2.3.1.3 Gross emissions and removals contributing to AFOLU emissions
2.3.1.4 Gross emissions and removals contributing to the non-anthropogenic land sink
2.3.1.5 Potential impact of mitigation on atmospheric CO2 concentrations
2.3.2
Methane
2.3.2.1
Atmospheric trends
2.3.2.2
Land use effects
2.3.3
Nitrous oxide
2.3.3.1
Atmospheric trends
2.3.3.2
Land use effects
2.4
Emissions and impacts of short-lived climate forcers (SLCF) from land
2.4.1
Mineral dust
2.4.1.1
Mineral dust as a short-lived climate forcer from land
2.4.1.2
Effects of past climate change on dust emissions and feedbacks
2.4.1.3
Future changes of dust emissions
2.4.2
Carbonaceous aerosols
2.4.2.1
Carbonaceous aerosol precursors of short-lived climate forcers from land
2.4.2.2
Effects of past climate change on carbonaceous aerosols emissions and feedbacks
2.4.2.3
Future changes of carbonaceous aerosol emissions
2.4.3
Biogenic volatile organic compounds
2.4.3.1
BVOC precursors of short-lived climate forcers from land
2.4.3.2
Historical changes of BVOCs and contribution to climate change
2.4.3.3
Future changes of BVOCs
2.5
Land impacts on climate and weather through biophysical and GHG effects
2.5.1
Impacts of historical and future anthropogenic land cover changes
2.5.1.1
Impacts of global historical land cover changes on climate
2.5.1.2
Impacts of future global land cover changes on climate
2.5.2
Impacts of specific land use changes
2.5.3
Amplifying/dampening climate changes via land responses
2.5.4
Non-local and downwind effects resulting from changes in land cover
2.6
Climate consequences of response options
2.6.1
Climate impacts of individual response options
2.6.1.1
Land management in agriculture
2.6.1.2
Land management in forests
2.6.1.3
Land management of soils
2.6.1.4
Land management in other ecosystems
2.6.1.5
Bioenergy and bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
2.6.1.6
Enhanced weathering
2.6.1.7
Demand management in the food sector (diet change, waste reduction)
2.6.2
Integrated pathways for climate change mitigation
2.6.3
The contribution of response options to the Paris Agreement
2.7
Plant and soil processes underlying land–climate interactions
2.7.1
Temperature responses of plant and ecosystem production
2.7.2
Water transport through soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and drought mortality
2.7.3
Soil microbial effects on soil nutrient dynamics and plant responses to elevated CO2
2.7.4
Vertical distribution of soil organic carbon
2.7.5
Soil carbon responses to warming and changes in soil moisture
2.7.6
Soil carbon responses to changes in organic matter inputs by plants
Desertification
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Executive Summary
3.1
The nature of desertification
3.1.1
Introduction
3.1.2
Desertification in previous IPCC and related reports
3.1.3
Dryland populations: Vulnerability and resilience
3.1.4
Processes and drivers of desertification under climate change
3.1.4.1
Processes of desertification and their climatic drivers
3.1.4.2
Anthropogenic drivers of desertification under climate change
3.1.4.3
Interaction of drivers: Desertification syndrome versus drylands development paradigm
3.2
Observations of desertification
3.2.1
Status and trends of desertification
3.2.1.1
Global scale
3.2.1.2
Regional scale
3.2.2
Attribution of desertification
3.3
Desertification feedbacks to climate
3.3.1
Sand and dust aerosols
3.3.1.1
Off-site feedbacks
3.3.2
Changes in surface albedo
3.3.3
Changes in vegetation and greenhouse gas fluxes
3.4
Desertification impacts on natural and socio-economic systems under climate change
3.4.1
Impacts on natural and managed ecosystems
3.4.1.1 Impacts on ecosystems and their services in drylands
3.4.1.2 Impacts on biodiversity: Plant and wildlife
3.4.2
Impacts on socio-economic systems
3.4.2.1
Impacts on poverty
3.4.2.2
Impacts on food and nutritional insecurity
3.4.2.3
Impacts on human health through dust storms
3.4.2.4
Impacts on gender equality
3.4.2.5
Impacts on water scarcity and use
3.4.2.6
Impacts on energy infrastructure through dust storms
3.4.2.7
Impacts on transport infrastructure through dust storms and sand movement
3.4.2.8
Impacts on conflicts
3.4.2.9
Impacts on migration
3.4.2.10
Impacts on pastoral communities
3.5
Future projections
3.5.1
Future projections of desertification
3.5.2
Future projections of impacts
3.6
Responses to desertification under climate change
3.6.1
SLM technologies and practices: On-the-ground actions
3.6.1.1
Integrated crop–soil–water management
3.6.1.2
Grazing and fire management in drylands
3.6.1.3
Clearance of bush encroachment
3.6.1.4
Combating sand and dust storms through sand dune stabilisation
3.6.1.5
Use of halophytes for the re-vegetation of saline lands
3.6.2
Socio-economic responses
3.6.2.1 Socio-economic responses for combating desertification under climate change
3.6.2.2 Socio-economic responses for economic diversification
3.6.3
Policy responses
3.6.3.1
Policy responses towards combating desertification under climate change
3.6.3.2
Policy responses supporting economic diversification
3.6.4
Limits to adaptation, maladaptation, and barriers for mitigation
3.7
Hotspots and case studies
3.7.1
Climate change and soil erosion
3.7.1.1
Soil erosion under changing climate in drylands
3.7.1.2
No-till practices for reducing soil erosion in central Chile
3.7.1.3
Combating wind erosion and deflation in Turkey: The greening desert of Karapınar
3.7.1.4
Soil erosion in Central Asia under changing climate
3.7.2
Green walls and green dams
3.7.2.1
The experiences of combating desertification in China
3.7.2.2
The Green Dam in Algeria
3.7.2.3
The Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative
3.7.3
Invasive plant species
3.7.3.1
Introduction
3.7.3.2
Ethiopia
3.7.3.3
Mexico
3.7.3.4
United States of America
3.7.3.5
Pakistan
3.7.4
Oases in hyper-arid areas in the Arabian Peninsula and northern Africa
3.7.5
Integrated watershed management
3.7.5.1
Jordan
3.7.5.2
India
3.7.5.3
Limpopo River Basin
3.8
Knowledge gaps and key uncertainties
Land Degradation
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Executive Summary
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Land degradation in the context of climate change
4.2.1
Processes of land degradation
4.2.1.1
Types of land degradation processes
4.2.1.2
Land degradation processes and climate change
4.2.2
Drivers of land degradation
4.2.3
Attribution in the case of land degradation
4.2.3.1
Direct linkages with climate change
4.2.3.2
Indirect and complex linkages with climate change
4.2.4
Approaches to assessing land degradation
4.3
Status and current trends of land degradation
4.3.1
Land degradation
4.3.2
Forest degradation
4.4
Projections of land degradation in a changing climate
4.4.1
Direct impacts on land degradation
4.4.1.1
Changes in water erosion risk due to precipitation changes
4.4.1.2
Climate-induced vegetation changes, implications for land degradation
4.4.1.3
Coastal erosion
4.4.2
Indirect impacts on land degradation
4.5
Impacts of bioenergy and technologies for CO2 removal (CDR) on land degradation
4.5.1 Potential scale of bioenergy and land-based CDR
4.5.2 Risks of land degradation from expansion of bioenergy and land-based CDR
4.5.3 Potential contributions of land-based CDR to reducing and reversing land degradation
4.5.4 Traditional biomass provision and land degradation
4.6
Impacts of land degradation on climate
4.6.1 Impact on greenhouse gases (GHGs)
4.6.2 Physical impacts
4.7
Impacts of climate-related land degradation on poverty and livelihoods
4.7.1
Relationships between land degradation, climate change and poverty
4.7.2
Impacts of climate-related land degradation on food security
4.7.3
Impacts of climate-related land degradation on migration and conflict
4.8
4.8 Addressing land degradation in the context of climate change
4.9
Case studies
4.10
Knowledge gaps and key uncertainties
Food Security
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Interlinkages between desertification, land degradation, food security and GHG fluxes: synergies, trade-offs and integrated response options
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Risk management and decision making in relation to sustainable development
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Annex-I Glossary
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Annex-II Acronyms
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Annex-III Contributors
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Annex-IV Reviewers
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Annex-V Index
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